Organisational Equality and Diversity: Māori and Non-Māori

Authoritative Equality and Diversity: Mä ori and Non-Mä ori Lonita M. Tejano Presentation As indicated by Lis Ellison-Loschmann (April 2006), laid out the advantages of human services status of the local people groups overall applicable to the hidden recorded, financial and political procedures. The Maoris and non-Maoris social insurance status in the hour of colonization by the British in New Zealand. The distinctions include an assortment factors as far as availability of medicinal services and bigotry. Improvement to the entrance to mind is basic to address wellbeing differences and expanded data of Maoris and non-Maoris as far as essential and optional social insurance administrations. On the other hand as indicated by the ongoing investigation Lis Ellison-Loschmann (April 2006) they utilize 2 standards on how Maori individuals improved their human services administrations trying to improve wellbeing and personal satisfaction for Maoris. As indicated by Ramsden (1997), wellbeing status of indigenous people groups an assortment factors that impact of verifiable, politi cal, and social attributes of conditions their connection with the nonindigenous populaces of the nations they lived. They direct on the wellbeing ideas of this normal society in the consequences for Maori human services administrations collect as to their mentalities toward and public activity of non-Maori populace. In view of Lis Ellison-Loschmann (2006 April) delineated the advantages of future in New Zealand in this two gathering of individuals. They have a major effect in human services advancing and limiting the lacks of concern that has been watched and seen by the scientists of late. As indicated by Lis Ellison-Loschmann (2006 April) saw that Maori wellbeing in the nation of New Zealand’s during the British colonization can give data in wellbeing status between the Maori promotion non-Maori aloofness. The administration assume the significant job to get to human services office. The legislature give two potential guideline on the most proficient method to advance the quality and simple approach to get to social insurance for the indigenous individuals right off the bat, how to build up the medicinal services standard to the administrations also, and inception of social wellbeing training. BODY In an ongoing report, King (2003) indicated that the Treaty of Waitangi and settlement that the Maoris in Aotearoa from the Pacific around 1000 years prior. As per Pool (1991) educating perhaps a hundred regarding indigenous individuals showed up in New Zealand on the timeframe a few stories said that resulting settlement designs and become bigger populace from various form of data like verbal data and socioeconomics recording. The endeavor of James cook’s in 1769 the main experience recorded to the Maori individuals and European pilgrims to New Zealand. In the interim, during the marking of Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 there was a composed understanding between the Maori individuals insurance of enthusiasm for the intruders and British settlements and they assemble with a portion of the Maori boss and agent of British crown. In this time there was 80 000 Maori populace and 2000 pilgrims. After the marking of the Treaty of Waitangi a gigantic gathering of British worker and Maori populace become diminished and pioneers multiplied the populace. In 1901 New Zealand populace essentially diminished to 770 313 pilgrims though the Maoris by 16.5:1.3. In light of Purie (1998) showed that the British pilgrims acquainting with the Maori individuals like the irresistible ailments and the use of firearms there is significant effect on death rates to Maoris populace. Besides, truly the financial of Maori death rate in the wake of attacking New Zealand the most significant thing the Maoris’ loss of land, death rate expanded from the illness to the degree among those indigenous people groups who needed to keep their properties. At this point there was a major changes to their monetary status like food supplies, and informal communication in general nation. As indicated by Purie(1998) saw that from the land appropriation from the Maori populace there was an enormous effect of the enactment law like the Maori rights not utilized language in school as Maori which lead to incongruities to wellbeing in Maori society. Based to Te Ropu Rangahau an Euro Pomare (2000) found that it has been contention that has been proceeded with a distinc tions in indigenous and non-Maori in medicinal services areas and privileges of indigenous network not being dealt with and ensured by the said arrangement of social, social, monetary, and political components can't be seen in wording contributory to their human services status all in all. Notwithstanding, the Maori self-determinant to look for help for wellbeing. In view of Pool (1991) notwithstanding that, Maori wellbeing status in New Zealand the legislature began executing social insurance administrations to Maori people group offer types of assistance like wellbeing advancement programs, wellbeing assessors to work and help continuously to the economy recuperation. Right now diminishes in death rate because of execution of national social insurance plan and network government assistance framework by the given year 1938 through the treatment strategies. Maori people group lived in provincial territories then they moved to urban for business openings in these regions in this way prompted large populace to urban relocation. As per Pool (1991) showed that essentially changes in this country’s economy from their typical lifestyle like developing grounds to creating fabricated merchandise. Due to As indicated by Kunitz (1994) life length essentially expanded among local gatherings of individuals in this nation and western world including neighboring nation like Australia, entire piece of Unites States of America and Canada on this given time. In examination of the nonindigenous populaces of these nations. During this timeframe populace become diminished because of sicknesses like respiratory from the changing of climate, tuberculosis and hepatitis, heart illnesses due stationary ways of life and diabetes, various kinds of malignant growth and mishap like vehicular wounds because of foolish driving a lot higher among Maoris than non-Maoris. An ongoing report (Ajwani, Blakely, Robson, Tobias Bonne, 2003) death rates diminished as a timeframe, with respect to the contrasts between the two gatherings of individuals in New Zealand still the equivalent. In view of Te Ropu Rangahau Hanuora (2000) a clarifications for wellbeing inconsistencies are numbered and said not being equivalent regarding wellbeing among the two gatherings of individuals in New Zealand some said that disparities is that hereditary hidden elements impacted. By the by, not essentially to race and ethnic gathering that hereditary factors about 85%. There are factors added to the inconsistencies among Maori and non-Maori like way of life in every individual gathering, the financial like not having a great job and legitimate spot to live and simple access to medicinal services office and bigotry. The clarifications are not noteworthy but rather it is helpful to consider them as an encouraging variables that affected that they connected together. The main investigations to assist with deciding the critical job of financial components and wellbeing status in two gathering of individuals there was an examination about the death rate in men at matured of 15-64 years. In light of Sporle, Pearce, Davis (2002) found that in the latest years analysts said that Maori men multiplied the figure improbable to non-Maori men at the youthful age perhaps because of financial status overall and ethnical social network varies the death rate among this gathering of men. A genuine model the level evaluations of financial hardship by the use of statistics information by the New Zealand hardship Index. Russell, Parnell, Wilson (1999) found that smoking is a way of life factors that can prompt financial impact to wellbeing status. Besides, give more significance to think about the contrast among Maori and non-Maori in their own ways of life. The most recent review by the national said that Maori smoke tobacco is higher rate than non-Maoris (53% versus 20%).Maori people are fat and they have a few sicknesses like hypertension because of stationary ways of life. As per Lurie (2004) saw that the entrance to social insurance is significant job to diminish death pace of Maori the base of this diseases advancing powerful human services open to this gathering of individuals. In this thought access to wellbeing has been depicted regarding both â€Å"access to† and â€Å"access through† social insurance standards making a nature of medicinal services benefits that being taken by. US of America built up a system for estimating differences to get to human services need of individuals and advancing nature of administration that will incorporates more extensive ecological and cultural elements model is bigotry that can impact to access to medicinal services needs. An ongoing report (Sporle et al., 1991) found that in recent years being separated and supremacist is exceptionally disturbing in medicinal services settings propensity minority individuals won't look for social insurance benefits in the essential human services office . The Maori Asthma revealed that those informed and an informed human services laborers to the sickness added to the Maori individuals hesitant to look for clinical consideration for their disease until if important. As indicated by Krieger (2003) saw that Maori has awful experience first experiences with medicinal services experts and debilitation like to get to the checking glucose to recognize diabetes maladies. As indicated by Matherson (1992) likewise, to change in wellbeing condition to New Zealand’s nation the administration planned in 1930s to give free clinical consideration given by working clinical experts. In this way, human services framework determined auxiliary to an administration office administrations with an optional consideration controlled financing while in essential consideration subsidized by singular specialists. Nonetheless, Maori starts worried on the most proficient method to elevate human services access to their people groups right off the bat, to give Maori medicinal services benefits besides, the advancement of cu

Belonging Essay Example for Free

Having a place Essay An individual’s communication with others and their general surroundings can enhance their sentiments of having a place and acknowledgment, anyway sentiments of instability can prompt disengagement and dismissal constraining the experience of having a place. The idea of having a place is feeling associated with another individual, gathering, spot or item that brings out positive feelings inside oneself. Conversely, not having a place leads with sentiments of distance because of an absence of getting, partition or when compelled to grasp newness. Through the 1992 movie ‘Strictly Ballroom’ coordinated by Baz Luhrmann, the children’s history ‘ by Beverley McGregor and the underground rock tune ‘Perfect’ by Simple Plan, authors delineate the two ideas of having a place and distance . Through a scope of true to life and scholarly strategies these arrangers show how an individual’s collaboration with others and their general surroundings can improve and confine their encounters of having a place. Baz Luhrmann through the film ‘Strictly Ballroom’ uses costuming to recommend disconnection just as ‘belonging’ and how it can either enhance or breaking point an individual’s experience. This is featured in the main scenes when watchers are presented, through the mocumentary, to the colorfulness of characters from the universe of formal dancing, for example, Liz in her trademark affected canary hued outfits, and Shirley Hasting in her pink ball outfits that are coordinated to her luxurious fuchsia eye shadow and lipstick. Conversely the character of Fran is wearing an indistinguishable, larger than average shirt and a nearby of her face shows her normally upset skin liberated from cosmetics, wearing an enormous pair of thick-surrounded glasses. This promptly isolates her from the remainder of the contenders and supporters of Ballroom moving, implying to the crowd that an absence of connection with others can seriously affect on ones feeling of having a place. The split screen later in the film where Fran, in ordinary day dresses hits the dance floor with Scott and on the opposite side of the blind Tina Sparkle moves in her shocking sequined outfit, further shows Fran’s estrangement from the moving scene. In any case, the melody she and Scott are moving to is Doris Day’s â€Å"Perhaps†, proposing that their organization might work. The stun on Shirley’s face and the utilization of the youngsters as a Greek theme ‘Fran.. who’d have thought’ additionally propose an acknowledgment of Fran. This is before long dissipated as Fran trips and a low point shot of Liz and Shirley as they take care of her and advise her to ‘go home’ reminds the crowd who has a place. Shirley and Liz’s impression of ‘belonging’ is enhanced through their connection with one another and their similarity with the universe of traditional dancing. At the point when Scott is told by Ricco the best way to move the Passo Doble, a nearby of his feet in dusty work shoes on uncovered timber of the floor appears differently in relation to a past close up of Scott’s feet in gleaming shoes on an exceptionally cleaned floor. In any case, it is on this harsh cut timber that Scott at long last figures out how to move ‘from the heart’ and his experience of having a place is enhanced. You acquaint costuming here so keep with that †your next passage is camera shots so don't befuddle the two here. You could talk of costuming and portrayal here however don't examine camera strategies when that is a piece of your second conversation of the center content. So also parts of having a place and not having a place and how these sentiments can enhance or breaking point a people experience are investigated in Beverly McGregor children’s account ‘Pink Balloons’. The hero Sky continually experiences estrangement and dismissal from her companions and their folks because of her ongoing finding of HIV/AIDS. This can be seen through imagery to communicate ‘Skye’s’ sentiments of seclusion, when she says to her carer ‘Do you like my image, the octopus has nine legs rather than eight, he is crying since he is distinctive to the others†. This gives her sentiments of deficiency because of her failure to associate with her general surroundings and the impediments she faces so as to get acknowledged. This can be additionally communicated through the solemn tone of the hero Skye as she transfers her despondency expressing to her mom â€Å"Mummy, its awful enough having AIDS without everybody avoiding you since they are terrified they can get it too†. Along these lines Skye’s evident segregation as can be seen through the separation she suffers all through the content, which altogether diminishes her odds of communicating with others to improve her very own understanding of ‘belonging’. Proceed here†¦ conversely, Skye’s encounters of ‘belonging’ are improved after her political decision to bad habit chief in her group as can be seen through the abstract method of a non-serious inquiry when Skye states â€Å"they could have picked anyone, however who did they pick? †. This features Skye’s capacity to feel a piece of her general surroundings because of her possible acknowledgment in her group, in spite of the consistent shame connected to her and her compression of the HIV/AIDS infection. Baz Luhrmann further displays having a place and not having a place and its impact on advancing or restricting a people involvement with ‘Strictly Ballroom’ through the execution of camera procedures. This can be found in the split screen where Fran and Scott are discovered moving together behind the blood red hued show window ornaments. Fran in a normal day dress is compared with Tina Sparkle in her offensive ensemble and sequins on the opposite side of the window ornaments. Scott and Fran move to the Doris Day melody ‘Perhaps’ proposing they might be move accomplices. After Fran tumbles to the ground and is hauled stage left by Shirley Hastings and Liz to the powder room a low edge perspective shot implies the estrangement of Fran. Fran is situated on a stool and gazes up at Mrs. Hastings and Liz demonstrating the conspicuous predominance Shirleyand Liz feel over Fran. what's more, further featured when ‘Liz’ states â€Å"you’re an apprentice Fran, what the heck did you think you were doing? † Fran is then left detached gazing up at the clustered gathering of ladies speaking to her division from the universe of formal dancing. When Shirley Hastings states, â€Å"I figure it will be better in the event that you just returned home and disregarded this nonsense† Fran’s dismissal through this scene passes on her failure to improve her experience of having a place in the realm of formal dancing. Proceed here†¦. In examination the last move scene features the improvement of a feeling of having a place. This is passed on through a since quite a while ago shot of the assembly hall, which catches the acknowledgment of Fran and Scotts ‘crowd-pleasing’ steps, when everyone starts to applaud with Doug to empower them to proceed with their move. Crosscutting between ‘The Pan Pacific Championships’ and Fran’s back yard is additionally used to communicate the connection among Fran and Scott and their freshly discovered association with moving. Scott no longer moves to win however for the love of the game and to communicate the effortlessness identified with his relationship with Fran. This strategy represents that it doesn't make a difference where Fran and Scott move as long as they are moving together. The execution of Diagetic sound the ‘Rumba De Burros’ in the finishing up scene communicates the idea of having a place and permits the watchers to build up a comprehension of the advancement of ‘Fran nd Scott’ when they are acknowledged in the realm of formal dancing only the manner in which they are. Moreover the tune ‘Perfect’ by the underground rock band ‘Simple Plan’ shows how confinement can constrain an individual’s opportunity to have a place. ‘Perfect’ typifies sentiments of uselessness and weakness as it investigates the idea of dismissal from the composer’s own dad quote required. The utilization of redundancy as can be seen through the words â€Å"I am grieved, I can’t be perfect†, and features how feeling lacking can isolate a person from their reality. Reiteration is successful as it fortifies the deviation of the arranger and gives the crowd an away from of the partition between the essayist and his dad. The suggestive idea of the verses can be seen through the facetious inquiry ‘Did you know, you used to be my saint? ’, this connects with the audience and alarms them to the adjustment in the relationship while communicating the energetic tone of the tune and the possible acknowledgment of the tempestuous relationship by the hero. Informal language, â€Å"Hey Dad† offers to a youthful crowd and welcomes them to have a knowledge into the dad and son’s individual life to permit them to comprehend the hurt that is felt by the child in their useless relationship. Moreover the lyricist continually utilizes facetious inquiries to address his dad and express his sentiments of deficiency, for example, â€Å"Did I grow up, as indicated by your arrangement?. Along these lines it tends to be comprehended that because of the dismissal experienced by the lyricist on account of his dad it restricts his chance to encounter a feeling of having a place. You have to examine the music when you talk about a tune else you should just discuss it as the taking everything into account different authors have used scholarly, visual and sound methods to pass on parts of having a place, and how this can restrict or improve ones response to their general surroundings. Through the examination of ‘Strictly Ballroom’, ‘Pink Balloons’ and ‘Perfect’ we can improve our comprehension of having a place and various deterrents that

Global warming

Global warming The acronym “IAP” usually evokes several feelings, including: Euphoria, associated with a lack of problem sets Excitement, over having free time to participate in competitions, take a class in something you’ve always wanted to learn, hang out with friends, or do research in the lab Dread…knowing that January is the coldest month of the year, with an average high temperature of 36 degrees and an average low of 22 degrees. That dreadful feeling was inappropriate today, as temperatures were around an extremely pleasant 65 degrees! My classmates and I took advantage of the warm spell by being outside as much as possible. I saw a group of friends having a picnic outside of East Campus (complete with a guitar, basket of food, and blanket), and I was pretty envious. I chose to read my book (Giving, by Bill Clinton) on the roof of Baker, take pictures (I included some below), and go for a run. Boston is known for being a very walkable city, and it’s even more runable! It’s no sweat to get to some of the area’s most fun and picturesque spots, including the Museum of Science, Harvard Square, Fresh Pond, the Navy Yard, Newbury Street, the Emerald Necklace, the Harbor, and the Esplanade. The Charles River is only a few feet away from most of the dorms, and once you’re there, you can take countless loops around and along it. Just want to work off some stress? Do the Harvard-B.U. Bridge Loop (2.7 miles). Training for a marathon, like two blogger alums? Run the Harvard-Mt. Auburn Street Loop (14.1 miles)…twice! For a map, click here. Mitra had also written an entry about running, found here. Here’s a little snapshot of the southern view from the Baker roof (click to see a bigger version): And here’s the northern view. It’s game time! Can you identify all of the numbered buildings? Finally, we had a beautiful sunset! (Sorry for the low image quality)

Essay about analysis of Edmund Spensers sonnet 67

Edmund Spenser Sonnet 67 Edmund Spenser’s Sonnet 67 is one of 85 sonnets from Amoretti which was written about his courtship of Elizabeth Boyle. Spenser and Boyle were married in 1594. Sonnet 67 uses a hunting themed metaphor common in 16th century England comparing the woman to a deer and the man to a huntsman in pursuit. Sonnet 67 appears to have been inspired by an earlier work by Petrarch, Rima 190, but with a different ending. In this paper we will take an in depth look at this work, also commonly referred to as â€Å" Lyke as a Huntsman†. First we will take a look at a literal interpretation of Sonnet 67. This piece begins with a huntsman in pursuit. His stalked prey, a deer, has gotten away from him. He is tired and sick of†¦show more content†¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"The gentle deare returnd the selfe-same way,† (Spenser ll. 7) shows that the woman comes back towards the man. Spenser uses the word deare instead of deer to allude to the metaphor of the deer actually being a woman that he cares for very much. However, she did not return to him specifically but just happened upon him in her search for someone or something else, â€Å"Thinking to quench her thirst at the next brooke† (Spenser ll. 8). Now we will look at the second half of Sonnet 67, also in a metaphorical sense. The woman sees that the man is no longer chasing after her â€Å"There she beholding me with mylder looke,† (Spenser ll. 9) and suddenly decides he might not be such a bad suitor after all â€Å"Sought not to fly, but fearelesse still did bide:† (Spencer ll.10). Spenser turns this piece around from the original Petrarch piece here. He shows that it is the woman that is in control as opposed to the man. He reaches out to her nervously because she has been running from him all this time and now she seems to be encouraging and wanting his affections. He appears hopeful that his sentiments will be well received by the woman and at the same time fearful of rejection. But she allows him to court her now and encourages him to love her instead of playing hard to get and running off again â€Å"Till I in hand her yet halfe trembling tooke, / And with her owne goodwill hir fyrmely tyde† (Spenser ll. 11 and 12). The man then thinks that it seems very odd to see the woman whoShow MoreRelatedCompare Contrast on Poems.962 Words   |  4 PagesHunt† by Sir Thomas Wyatt and â€Å"Sonnet 67† by Edmund Spenser are sonnets that are very similar at a first glance, but delving deeper, a difference can be found. Both of these sonnets use imagery and figures of speech relating to the hunt of an unobtainable woman as well as that central theme. Through a deeper analysis it is revealed that these two authors have a different interpretation of this failed hunt. A comparison and contrast of â€Å"Whoso List to Hunt† and â€Å"Sonnet 67† reveals that they are veryRead MoreDuchess Of Malf Open Learn10864 Words   |  4 4 PagesMalfi, focuses on the representation of the theme of love and marriage in the Malfi court, and the social conflicts to which it gives rise. The unit guides you through the first part of the play and will help you to develop your skills of textual analysis. This unit focuses mainly on Acts 1 and 2 of the play. You should make sure that you have read these two acts of the play before you read the unit. The edition of the play that is used in this unit is the Pearson Longman (2009) edition, edited by

The Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society - 950 Words

REVOLUSTUIN OF LERANING What is definition of new education? People get educated from School, home and society, so learning method change during the period of time. Education stared to fight with illiteracy and the most beneficial of formal education is decreasing number of illiterate people in the world since last decades. According to short â€Å"The Human Cost Of an illiterate society† Kozol agues how illiterates stop a society to be more development â€Å"The number of illiterates adults exceeds by 16 million the entire vote cast for the winner in 1980 presidential contest†(Kozel94). Later, Baker in â€Å"School Vs. Education â€Å" argues how education in not enough for children in schools Even though education is essential and valuable, present education system should constantly being reviewed and updated in grading method, using technology, and adding hands-on learning to be support todays society and industries demands. The grading system is failed cause student focus on score and being on top of the class. In school, children may learn basic academic skills. Also, they may discover social knowledge by attending at the school, which the educational system base for testing and grading; therefore, they will evaluate with marks and understand of teacher’s technique â€Å"This stage lasts twelve years, a period during which the child learns that success comes from telling testers what that want to hear†(Baker 72). In fact this structure helps student to prepare forShow MoreRelatedThe Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society989 Words   |  4 PagesAnalysis of â€Å"The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society† In the essay, â€Å"The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society† written by Jonathan Kozol and originally published in the book, â€Å"Illiterate America†, is a bundle of examples of how people who are illiterate live every day. It showcases the hardships they go through, and how much of a problem it is. He had quotes from various interviews with people who are illiterate, and how many become distrustful of people trying to explain what the written documentRead MoreThe Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society1048 Words   |  5 PagesAre illiterates just people who exist? Do they just walk around aimlessly, never knowing what to do? â€Å"Illiterates live, in more than literal ways, an uninsured existence,† says Jonathan Kozol. In Kozol’s article, â€Å"The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society,† he intensely describes how illiteracy can impact both the illiterate and those surrounding him. There is a tragic human cost for an illiterate society. If people a re unable to read, then what can they do? In this case, the least taken-for-grantedRead MoreThe Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society By Jonathan Kozol946 Words   |  4 Pagesfrom 2003, 99% of the total population ages 15 and over can read and write (CIA Library). Thus, one can conclude illiteracy is not a crisis. However, â€Å"The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society† by Jonathan Kozol, implies something different. Kozol emphasizes the hardship of an illiterate, and briefly explains the importance of helping an illiterate without providing much of a solution, while Kozol’s essay was ineffective overall because of the lack of factual evidence and flawed conclusions, his strategicRead MoreThe Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society By Johnathan Kozol Essay1316 Words   |  6 Pagesis a very common practice in society, the ability to appreciate the smaller things in life is a trait not commonly found in many. Be it having the ability to attend a university, or having the pr oper use of all of one’s limbs, many don’t fully understand and appreciate the gifts they have. In his work, The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society, Johnathan Kozol relates this idea to the importance of literacy, and the implications and struggles that are imposed on society and those who lack it. InsteadRead MoreThe Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society By Jonathan Kozol877 Words   |  4 Pagesdid. In Jonathan Kozol’s essay titled, â€Å"The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society,† he exposes the complications of being illiterate as well as how it affects a person on a social, personal, and financial level. He brings to light the troubles illiterates go through right from the beginning, and takes repeated stabs at the way they function, and how it brings extreme troubles. Kozol effectively educates and exploits the overlooked troubles of being illiterate, by providing examples of their embarrassmentRead MoreThe Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society By Jonathan Kozol1059 Words   |  5 Pages As soon as humans walked the earth, since the beginnings of time, learning was the most vital in order to survive. This was, and still is today, the most important part of adaptation, problem-solving, and creation of life itself. Without it, our society would never move forwa rd and humanity would never advance. Undeniably, education is the start of everything in life itself meaning that it continuously surrounds every aspect of life. In both Frederick Douglass’s essay, â€Å"Learning to Read† andRead MoreJonathan Kozol The Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society Analysis1009 Words   |  5 Pagesilliteracy. In this society, it is unfortunate that there are individuals who are illiterate, which ultimately affects their democratic lives. Many other citizens do not face this issue, and may not recognize the disadvantages that illiterates face. In Jonathan Kozol’s text, â€Å"The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society,† he discusses the various issues concerned with illiteracy, one of them being how it affects democracy. Democracy is a type of government where power, that involves human rights and valuesRead MoreEssay on Jonathan Kozol The Human Cost Of An Illiterate Society926 Words   |  4 Pages Knowledge is an effective factor in which human society relies on. Throughout history, those who were knowledgeable were well-respected, honored and revered. Author Jonathan Kozol writes his essay, â€Å"The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society,† to project the importance of knowledge and to explain that without it, one can suffer disastrous repercussions. He highlights real-life examples of how people suffer as a result of chronic illiteracy, and his entire essay is an advocacy for knowledge andRead More Fishing for Words Essay1502 Words   |  7 Pagesin America; basically someone illiterate cannot live on their own until they have been taught the basics, reading and writing. According to Kozol’s essay The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society the government, administration, and people of high power live by the beginning of the quote (Kozol, The Human Cost of an Illiterate Society). They help someone illiterate make a living until the person is out of their control. Ye t the government, administrations, and society maintain control through illiteracyRead MoreIphone Collection Of Biometric Identification Essay1126 Words   |  5 Pagesis designed to serve two main segments of the society who are the elderly and the blind people. 2) Objectives of the project: To serve the community, as the elderly and the blind represent a large segment of society by facilitate their lives and reduce their dependence on others, this wallet is able to read and calculate the amount of money and deliver the information audible. In addition, we seek to make the product available to all strata of society through its appropriate price. 3) Current situation

Dyspraxia Free Essays

The term dyspraxia derives from the Greek work praxis, meaning â€Å"movement process† (Dworkin, 2005). It is a disorder that affects motor skill development. People with dyspraxia have trouble planning and completing fine motor tasks. We will write a custom essay sample on Dyspraxia or any similar topic only for you Order Now This can vary from simple motor tasks such as waving goodbye to more complex tasks like brushing teeth. Throughout the years, dyspraxia has also been called congenital maladriotness, developmental coordination disorder, clumsy child syndrome and sensory integration disorder (Hamilton, 2011). The first documented research in â€Å"poor muscular coordination in children† was in 1926 by Louisa Lippitt. She developed a manual for corrective gymnastics for women to help correct coordination problems. Lippitt felt that the coordination issues were a condition of the nervous system and was one of the first to want to treat it with therapeutic measures (Cermak Larkin, 2002). The term Dyspraxia was first documented and given a name in 1937 in the U. K. by Samuel T. Orton, who called it developmental dyspraxia. He was a neurologist and he felt that dyspraxia was caused by lesions in the brain, especially to the dominate hemisphere of the brain. The technology available at the time could not prove or disprove his theories. Most scientists since have discounted his view, and instead believe it to be a problem with neural connections. Even so, his work was important because he was the first to note that dyspraxia caused problems with complex movement and could involve speech as well as body movements (Platt, 2011). In the USA, dyspraxia was first given recognition in 1947, through the work of Strauss and Lehtinen. They published research and were considered pioneers in the observation of behavioral characteristics of what they termed â€Å"the brain injured child†. Lehtinen was actually one of the first to use the term â€Å"learning disabilities† (Kass Maddux, 2005). In 1975, people began to call it â€Å"Clumsy Child Syndrome† and children who had the disorder were called â€Å"Clumsy Children†. This term is now considered inappropriate, as it describes the child and not the movement and has negative connotations (Hamilton, 2011). There are four categories of dyspraxia. They include ideomotor dyspraxia, ideational dyspraxia, oromotor dyspraxia and constructional dyspraxia. Ideaomotor dyspraxia is the inability to complete single step motor tasks like waving goodbye or brushing one’s hair. Ideational dyspraxia is difficulty with multi-step tasks like making a bed or buttoning and zipping pants. Oromotor dyspraxia has to do with speech in that it presents itself as a difficulty coordinating the muscle movements needed to say words. Lastly, constructional dyspraxia is difficulty with spatial relationships like moving objects from one place to another (NCLD Editorial Staff, 2010). Dyspraxia also presents itself differently in different age groups. In babies and young children, it can be seen as a difficulty learning to walk or jump. It can also show as a difficulty in speaking and being understood. Also, some young children will be slow to establish left or right handedness. Young children with dyspraxia may seem clumsy and frequently bump into things. Babies and children may be easily irritated by touch, like the feeling of some fabrics on their skin (NCLD Editorial Staff, 2010). In school aged children, dyspraxia looks a bit different. Students will have trouble with fine motor skills and it exhibits itself as difficulty holding a pencil or holding scissors. These students will also have trouble with sports or gym class due to poor coordination. If they have oromotor issues, they may have slow or difficult to understand speech. These issues often cause social withdrawal because these students feel embarrassed and awkward. This is the age in which students begin to have psychological issues in addition to their dyspraxia (NCLD Editorial Staff, 2010). In adults, dyspraxia looks similar, with some slight differences. Adults with oromotor issues will still have speech issues, but it is generally problems with volume, articulation and pitch. Some adults with dyspraxia will have difficulty writing. They may not be able to drive and are still very clumsy. It can also become evident when an adult has difficulty with personal grooming due to motor skill issues. They also continue to have texture issues and sensitivity to touch (NCLD Editorial Staff, 2010). References Cermak, S. A. Larkin, D. (2002). Developmental Coordination Disorder. Albany, NY. Delmar, a Division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Dworkin, J. (2005). Apraxia. Gale Encyclopedia of Neurological Disorders. Retrieved from http://www. encyclopedia. com/topic/Apraxia. spx. Hamilton, S. S. (2011). Overview of Developmental Coordination Disorder. Retrieved from http://www. uptodate. com/contents/overview-of-developmental-coordination-disorder. Kass, C. E. and Maddux, C. D. (2005) A Human Development View of Learning Disabilities: From Theory to Practice. Springfield, IL. Charles C Thomas Publisher, LTD. NCLD Editorial Staff. (2010). What is Dyspraxia? Retrieved from http ://www. ncld. org/ld-basics/ld-aamp-language/writing/dyspraxia. Platt, G. (2011). Beating Dyspraxia With a Hop, Skip and a Jump. Philadelphia, PA. Jessica Kinglsey Publishers. How to cite Dyspraxia, Essay examples

An Anecdote Of Customer Relationship Skills †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the An Anecdote Of Customer Relationship Skills. Answer: Name of the Organization The name of my organization is ABC Health, Gastro-intestine division. It is basically a pharmaceutical based in the USA having products related to gastroenterology. I am working as a Business Manager for this organization. Communication Method Communication forms the basis of the success of any business. There are two types of businesses- B2C (Business to the client) and B2B (Business to business) and both demands effective communication. As the nature of the business is B2B, different modes of communication are involved. In this type of business, products reach the end consumers through various channels and a successful delivery of the end products to the end consumers require effective communication apart from the quality of the product; efficacy in our case and price of the product. In our case, there are different modes of communication that are being adopted while carrying out various work processes. Our customers are physicians; senior managers of hospitals; distributors; and retailers. The relationship with each fraternity plays a major role in the success of the business. The different modes of communication are meeting each customer in person; using email and phone; Text messaging using mobile phone, and conducting conferences and meetings. The personal meeting takes place with each of the customers. The purpose of meeting physician personally is to communicate the products our company is producing, their salient features, mode of action, price, and side effects; this particular purpose is replicated in every meeting with some cuts like a distributor; a management official of a hospital; and a retailer need not be detailed much about the mode of action of our medicines, here the focus should be more on discounts and prices. E-mails and phones are used for communicating with the doctors mostly while text messages and phones for communicating with distributors whereas conferences are for establishing a line of communication with doctors. Problem The problem I faced during a meeting was a situation which involved the use of relationship skills, managerial skills, ethics, integrity, and aptitude. The concerned physician, Dr. SP was head of the department of gastroenterology of the largest state run hospital in the concerned state. The physician has been endorsing our products for more than 3 years and he, in fact, generates a business worth 2000 USD per month. Being the head of the department, he is also the key opinion leader (KOL) of the gastro fraternity in the city. During a visit, he told me that the feasibility of our organization to arrange an accommodation for the doctor, and his family for one night in a particular place where he was supposed to stay for visiting his home town. There were few issues involved. One, it was rude and not economically viable for me to say straightaway that it would not be possible as it could have hurt the doctor and a good relationship means a lot to our company. The second thing was the fact that our organization does not use any kind of sponsorship tools to endorse its products, so saying a yes was another problem as it would be undermining the ethical principles of our organization. Third, paying out of my pocket and satiating doctors need at present does not necessarily guarantee that in future the physician might not ask for such a thing. Another facet of the problem was that me and my seniors were contemplating to make him the speaker for an upcoming CME (Continued medical education) program where the criteria for a speaker comprise speaker to be a senior physician and a current prescriber of our products as it involves promoting that particular product in front of other physicians, so the experience of patient outcome is needed and the best person to do so is a KOL and Dr. SP is a KOL. I, in a most humble manner, told him that I shall definitely try to come up with the best possible solution for the stay matter as these are the things which involve finance de partment, as well as my seniors and hence an approval, is a must. He smiled and said alright. When I conveyed this to my reporting manager, he said it is not possible as higher authority might hesitate to deviate from the set guidelines and it may become a norm for the other physician as well. So, it was an implicit no. Resolution As a person who is involved in direct communication with Dr. SP, and he has been prescribing the products as a result of my behavior, humility, and chemistry with him in addition to the quality of the products, I decided to take things in my hands. I thought remaining honest would be the best possible way to get out of this impasse. I remember on one occasion he asked me to get a book Current medical diagnosis and treatment for him which he was not getting from anywhere. I got it for him with the help of my seniors as our company never takes a backseat when it comes to enriching physicians with knowledge, so it was well within the guidelines. I derived some confidence from that incidence and met him. When he asked me about the outcome of my talks with the management of the company, I revealed the truth. I thought when there is no solution coming from any corner, the best option is to tell the truth. When he heard all those things he became a bit disappointed but was not angry. Had th is plan failed and the chance of losing him would have gone high, I had to go for spending the amount from my own pocket by conveying it to my seniors. In this case, the doctor forgot the past and became the main speaker of the CME. I learned that at times, if the truth is communicated properly, it can prove to be an effective CRM tool.

Verbal learning

Research in the relationship of verbal learning and memory involves the understanding of how people retain and use information concerning symbolically representable objects and events, and the information about their interconnection.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Verbal learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Tulving and Madigan described the concept of verbal learning in 1970 and according to the authors, symbolically representable items and events include letters, letters grouping, sentences, words, numbers, digits, and so forth; verbal items (p.438). The perceived connections are spatial-temporal, that is, an event (a verbal item for recall), which is followed or proceeded by, or appears next to, or occurs simultaneously with certain discretely specifiable perspective of the perceived environment. Verbal learning students speak the stimulus-response language. With respect to this target group, verbal learn ing involves acquisition and withholding of verbal responses pertaining to stimuli. Acquisition often relates to â€Å"attachment of response to stimuli†¦forgetting denotes the loss of response availability† (Tulving Madigan, 1970, p.439). Acquisition of responses signifies the strengthening of connection between the responses and the stimuli to which the students attach the responses. Learners can develop response during acquisition or in the subsequent retention test, as far as the strength of the connection surpasses an imaginary evocation threshold. Psychologists conceptualize forgetting as the product of weakening of connections, although recall failure can as well reveal competition of responses involved with the same stimulus. Tulving and Madigan (1970) posit that, researchers can induce this process, commonly known as â€Å"extinction† or â€Å"unlearning† using different empirical manipulation, or may happen naturally outside the laboratory (p.439 ). Psychologist use experimental paradigms to simulate spontaneous occurrence of this process. The stress on stimulus-response association in verbal learning determines a concern with specification of stimuli. Tulving and Madigan (1970, p.439) assert that the use of empirical models by which the specification of the stimuli is technically possible using serial anticipation and paired associates procedures. More recently, the identification of functional stimuli in models of serial learning and free recall highlights this concern. The proceeding paragraph will compare and contrast the models psychology researchers use to relate the specification of stimuli to response in verbal learning, such as free recall, serial learning, and paired associate learning.Advertising Looking for essay on education? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Free recall is the simplest task that involves the use of verbal units, normally words that a resear cher presents by reading or visually to a subject. After completion of the presentation, the subject recites or writes as many words as s/he can recall. The subject is free to give the items in any order and the facilitator credits him or her for recalling the listed items without regard of their order. In addition, the verbal items may be necessarily unrelated or closely connected (Mahmud, 2004, p.123). This procedure does not permit the researcher to know what stimulus induced a response, although it gives insight on the patterns of learned responses. Serial learning, on the other hand, differs from free recall in two significant aspects; first, the experimenter maintains the sequence of the items from trial to trial, and items are credited on condition that the subject recalls them in the same order they were presented. Second, an anticipation method is used, where the subject is required to recite the following items when the researcher presents a specific item. Mahmud posits th at the need for a correct order creates â€Å"serial position effect† (2004, p.124). In addition, serial learning, unlike the free recall, involves the use of memory drum. The item is listed severally and a trial-wise record of subject’s right and wrong anticipation is preserved until the subject recites all the items correctly on two successive trials, or s/he recites 80 percent of the items correctly. In contrast, paired associated learning method needs the subject to produce a response term (verbal unit) upon the presentation of stimulus term (another verbal unit) that the experimenter had associated it with previously. Like serial learning method, the anticipation technique used in paired associated learning requires the subject to anticipate and cite the correct response when the experimenter presents the stimulus prior to both items. The researchers maintain a constant anticipation and study intervals in each experiment with standardized duration of 2 seconds for each experiment. The aforementioned experimental models are just a few of the existing models for studying verbal learning. The target group and the objective of the study may dictate the choice of experimental model.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Verbal learning specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Reference List Mahmud, S. J. (2004). Introduction to Psychology. New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. Tulving, E., Madigan, S. A. (1970). Memory and verbal learning. Annual Review of  Psychology, 21, 437-484. This essay on Verbal learning was written and submitted by user Journey Freeman to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

buy custom Health and Medicine essay

buy custom Health and Medicine essay There are two types of medicines that play their roles in my family. For health-promoting medicine, such as multi-vitamin, it provides the nutrients my body needs. And for healing-medicine, it might quickly remove my symptoms and restore my health. I believe in the treatment of medicines and healthcare of all kinds. My familys members also hold the same beliefs or values as mine. This response falls under Dr. Edmund Pellegrinos theory of Hippocratic tradition which is summarized as tradition emerges from relatively homogenous societies where beliefs were similar and the majority of societal members share common values (The Theoretical approaches to Health Care Ethics, n.d.). If the sickness is a common recurring type, I would purchase medicine at the counter that has conventionally helped me to heal such symptom or consult my physician. If the illness is not a recurring one, I would need to consult a physician. I would choose the physician in whom I have confidence to cure my sickness according to my view. And my family members, though with different background and beliefs, would also share all my views. Thus, this response would fall under the theory of Principlism where principles were expansive enough to be shared by all rational individuals, regardless of their background and individual beliefs (The Theoretical approaches o Health Care Ethics, n.d.). I would buy medicines at counter for normal cold or for headache. For chronic cold or headache, however, I would consult a physician. The theoretical approach to understanding health is similar to response 2) above. It all depends on the types of medicine I take. For example, if I want to promote my health by taking health-promoting medicine, I would look at the contents of the medicine, such as whether there is sufficient quantity of calcium per capsule for increasing the health of my bones. For those common medicines such as pain-killers, I would not check on what contents are in the pills. In both cases, I thus place good faith in the medicines or the people who produce it. This response would fall under the theoretical approach to health by the Virtue Ethics of the Anti-Principalism that emphasizes the virtuous character of individuals who make the choice (The Theoretical approaches to Health Care Ethics, n.d.). - In the long run, however, the nature of my healthcare is overall very satisfactory. Buy custom Health and Medicine essay

Writing an Effective Report in the Field of Criminal Justice Assignment

Writing an Effective Report in the Field of Criminal Justice - Assignment Example When I visited the store, the counter had been messed up, items fallen here and there. There was evidence that there was a fight since there were blood stains on the floor and the items such as keys, phone, computer mouse and keyboard. This is how Grace narrated her ordeal: â€Å"It was on 3rd May, 2014 when this incident occurred. Nothing was strange during the period as customers streamed in and out as they normally did.At around ten, three men entered the store and went directly to the fruits shelf. When they first came in, one of them went to the fruit shelf and another stood beside the counter and asked me how I was and left to meet the one at the fruits section. The third one went to the bakeries section which is at far end of this store. Two minutes later, they converged at the fruit section. All of a sudden, one of them pulled out a gun; I think it a revolver, and shot twice in the air. All the customers in the store ran off leaving me trapped in the counter desk by the two other men. One of them started beating me up using a hammer which he held in his hand repetitively. I asked him to stop and take away all the money in the cash drawer but he would not hear of it. I cannot say where the two of his frien ds were when he was bashing me.† Grace narrates that she managed to cheat death when she faked unconscious. The second suspect left her alone for the dead and they left with the third suspect carrying a small plastic bag full of money. In deed the girl was beaten mercilessly. In my investigation, she had attended the Mediheal University Hospital in Texas for treatment just after she made the statement with the police. The doctor noted that she had sustained severe soft tissue injuries on the back, shoulder and her left hand. She had broken one of her ribs on the right hand side of the body. The doctor, in her medical report, notes â€Å"These injuries are severe. The soft tissue injuries on the back, left shoulder and

ITECFINAL Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

ITECFINAL - Essay Example For instance, on its initial launch, users need to register for an account prior to do online shopping for insurance plans. There was a design flaw that was provoking uncertainty to the website visitors/users and hence was imposing a serious error in user e-commerce experience. Moreover, the design was constructed by non-technical personnel without any knowledge of how the website will utilize technology available at backend. It is astonishing that the user can access all the contents of the website without registration and the website should not degrade its performance when a large number of users trying to purchase health insurance. However, for a federal function website, 700, 000 is not a massive number in terms of other federal or government website visitors. Moreover, if we compare the number of visitors with some other popular social networking sites, they have billions of daily visitors. Likewise, the integration of this site with the other sites such as Internet Revenue Serv ice and the Department of Veteran affairs has severely affected its navigation response. Moving forward, the website needs to validate information from different interfaces of other systems that are using old technology, there is a dependency that needs to be sorted in the design phase of this website. Currently, the delay occurring on these old systems is reflecting on the website and end user is suffering. Secondly, there is one more issue that adds more problems for the end users i.e. data corruption that has already been identified and it is increasing day by day. The data submitted by the end users is submitted to insurance companies via and they have already reported about receiving bad data, as there are issues in dependent classifications etc. As already more than fifty vendors were working on different areas of this site, glitches were expected. Experts concludes that the project was not handled to perfection and

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay

The General Adaptation Syndrome Psychology Essay Stress is inescapably present in the lives of every living organism. While some stress can be beneficial, too much of it is almost always disadvantageous. Frequently the word stress is used to describe the imposition of an undesirable psychological or physical state through uncontrollable or overwhelming circumstances. We tend to think of stress as a burden that we carry around with us. One individual might perceive that they are under an enormous amount of stress because of multiple impending deadlines, while another might feel stressed out because their house is not clean and unexpected guests are on their way. Despite the predominantly negative description above, stress itself is not necessarily bad. In fact, stress is an adaptive process without which our survival would be seriously compromised. Moderate stress can even have beneficial effects, such as improving cognitive function to facilitate meeting multiple deadlines and increasing energy supply to muscles to quickly clean th e entire house in a matter of minutes. However, too much or prolonged stress can result in a variety of detrimental effects on both physiological function and cognitive processes. Definition In order to properly understand the effects of stress on cognition, as measured by performance in a variety of mazes, we must first come to an understanding of what stress is. At its core, stress is can be defined as the response to a threat (or perceived threat) against homeostasis, the tendency of a system to maintain a stable internal environment. Living organisms, including humans and rodents, are open systems which work to maintain homeostasis despite being constantly bombarded by numerous external environmental insults. Homeostasis The concept of homeostasis was initially conceived by the French physiologist Claude Bernard in1854. He used the term milieu intà ©rierur to describe the ability of the internal environment (primarily the blood in Bernards time) of the body to compensate for and re-equilibrate in response to the external environment [1,2]. However, it was Walter Cannon who developed the concept of homeostasis. He proposed that the body maintained steady state conditions through multiple cooperative self-regulating mechanisms. One phenomenon observed by Cannon was that organisms respond to a threat by releasing epinephrine (aka adrenaline) from the adrenal medulla thereby increasing the bodys heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure while mobilizing glucose stores and inhibiting non-essential functions such as digestion and reproduction. This phenomenon is the prototypical sympathetic nervous system (a branch of the autonomic nervous system) response, for which Cannon coined the term fight-or-flig ht response [3]. Simply put, when confronted with a threat, an organism, through the narrowing of bodily functions and mobilization of available energy, is primed to respond actively, whether through fleeing or fighting. Thus, the primary contribution of Walter Cannon to the definition of stress was that in response to an environmental insult threatening the internal steady stated, the body initiates the sympathetic response to maintain homeostasis and ultimately increase survival. General Adaptation Syndrome The second major contributor to stress research was endocrinologist Hans Selye. Selye was working to discover a new hormone by injecting ovarian extracts in to rats and observing the physiological effects. He noted several changes after injection of this extract, including the 1) enlargement of the adrenal gland, 2) the atrophy of the thymus and lymph nodes and 3) the presence of gastric ulcers [4]. While he initially thought these effects were direct effects of a novel hormone, through additional control experiments he discovered that the injection of numerous agents, physical injury or even excessive exercise produced the same reliable effects [5]. Emphasizing the non-specificity of this response, Selye called these effects the General Adaptation Syndrome initially and later used the term stress to describe it. He further defined stressors as the factors or agents that triggered the stress response. In addition, Selye established the role of glucocorticoids, steroid hormones excret ed from the adrenal cortex, in the stress response. Furthermore, Selye described that prolonged exposure to stressors (and the stress response) can lead to illness or disease. Summary The combined work of Walter Cannon and Hans Selye formed the basis of stress research. Both agreed that when confronted with disruptive environmental factors, the body generated an adaptive response aimed at re-establishing homeostasis within the internal environment. Cannon focused on the sympathetic branch of this response, while Selye focused on the hormonal (i.e., endocrine) branch of this response. Modern thinking has modified the conceptualization of stress, as it turned out to be not quite as simple as originally thought. Importantly it is no longer thought that stress is non-specific as the magnitude and more subtle characteristics of the stress response are varied based on the type of stressor, the individuals perception of the stress and ability to cope. The following basic features of stress can be gleaned from this historical work: Stressors are any event, experience or environmental insult that threatens or is perceived to threaten homeostasis Stress is an adaptive response to re-establish and maintain homeostasis Stress is ultimately mediated by two branches: The sympathetic nervous system via release of epinephrine from the adrenal medulla The endocrine system via release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex These definitions and characteristics are more conducive to scientific study than the layman use of the term stress which does not distinguish between the trigger and the response, as described in the opening of this section. Thus, the definitions above will be utilized in the following sections. This chapter will further develop these basic concepts and present 1) an overview of the stress response, 2) descriptions of the different types of stressors, 3) the effects of both acute and chronic stress on learning and memory and 4) practical details on how to deal with the nuances of stress in behavioral testing. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ACUTE STRESS RESPONSE When a stressor is encountered, the brain triggers a physiological response, aimed at coping with the stressor and restoring homeostasis [6]. This response is governed by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). Both of these systems are always actively engaged in maintaining homeostasis, but when posed with a disruption to an organisms internal environment, the HPA axis and SNS go into overdrive. When stressors are encountered several central nervous system (CNS) structures are activated to initiate the stress response, including the preganglionic sympathetic neurons of the spinal cord in addition to several brainstem and limbic forebrain structures [7]. These structures then recruit neural and neuroendocrine systems to initiate a stress response, culminating with the secretion of adrenal glucocorticoids (GCs) and epinephrine, the principle mediators of this adaptive response. The Sympathetic Nervous System Two primary pathways are activated by stressors within the SNS, the brain norepinephrine neurons in the locus coeruleus (LC) and the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry. Many, but not all stressors result in norepinephrine release from the LC, which ultimately contributes to the majority of circulating NE levels as well as numerous adaptive behaviors [8,9]. Activation of the sympathetic adrenomedullary circuitry via preganglionic neurons results in the release of the excitatory neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) onto postganglionic neurons and the adrenal medulla. Sympathetic postganglionic neurons primarily release of norepinephrine directly onto various target organs. On the other hand, activation of the adrenal medulla results in the synthesis and release of epinephrine into the circulation and indirectly onto target organs. Target organs activated by these catecholamines neurotransmitters correspond directly to the symptoms of the fight-or-flight response, including increased heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, pupil dilation, and inhibition of digestion, liver, kidney and gall bladder function. The Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis (Figure 1: HPA axis from Lupien 2009 Review) The present chapter will focus on the endocrine branch of the stress response. While the activation of the sympathetic nervous system is a key part of stress, many of the effects of stress on learning and memory have been shown to be dependent on GCs. The secretion of adrenal GC hormones is under the stimulatory drive of the medial parvocellular neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. In response to stressors, brainstem and limbic forebrain regions activate these neurons to secrete corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin into the hypophysial circulation to stimulate the anterior pituitary to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) into the peripheral circulation which ultimately results in the release of GCs from the adrenal gland [10]. GCs are carried to every organ via the circulation to allow for a coordinated adaptive response between the brain and bodily functions. GCs mobilize energy, suppress immune and inflammatory responses, inhibi t bone and muscle growth and reproductive function as well as increase attention and impact learning and memory processes [11]. GCs also regulate further CRH and ACTH release via negative feedback loops by binding receptors in the pituitary, PVN, hippocampus (HPC) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) to inhibit further GC release and to return the homeostatic balance of the HPA axis [10] (Fig. 1). While these are the primary targets of GCs, virtually every neuron in the brain has receptors for these hormones. Thus, GCs are an important enabler of normal brain function in addition to their role in HPA axis function. Corticosterone (CORT), the primary GC in the rat, is the ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), steroid hormone receptors that function as transcription factors and regulate neuronal gene transcription. GR and MR have different affinities for CORT in the brain. GRs are expressed ubiquitously in the brain, and are most concentrated in the CRH neurons of the PVN and ACTH releasing neurons in the anterior pituitary and also in the HPC [10]. The highest expression of MRs in the brain is in the HPC, though they are expressed in other forebrain regions [10]. MRs are saturated by modest levels of CORT, such as those generated during circadian oscillations, and thus mediate daily changes in HPA axis activity. On the other hand, GRs are saturated by more extreme levels of CORT, such as those seen following a stressful experience, and mediate negative feedback to restore homeostasis [12,10]. Time Course of the Acute Stress Response (Figure 2: rise and fall of CORT) The typical stress response begins within a very short period of time. The SNS response occurs more rapidly than the HPA axis response, due to direct neurotransmitter release on target tissues vs. indirect hormonal release into the circulation, respectively. Within seconds, the post-ganglionic neurons of the SNS release norepinephrine and the adrenal medulla releases epinephrine into circulation. Also within seconds, CRH is released from the PVN of the hypothalamus, followed quickly by the release of ACTH into peripheral circulation from the anterior pituitary [13]. Within 3-5 minutes, the adrenal cortex releases CORT into the circulation, by which time peak plasma ACTH levels are reached. While peak levels of GCs vary according to stressor type and duration, circulating CORT levels typically reach peak levels15-30 minutes after stressor initiation [14]. At this time ACTH levels have also returned to baseline [14]. However, the effects of GCs on target tissues do not occur until abou t an hour after stressor initiation [13]. After peak CORT levels are reached, negative feedback mechanisms shut down further CORT secretion so that circulating CORT levels recover to near baseline levels within 60-120 minutes after stressor initiation [15,14]. The time required to reach baseline levels also varies depending on stressor type and duration. Circulating levels of norepinephrine and epinephrine follow a similar trajectory, but with more rapid increases and decreases [16]. Biological Rhythms Plasma levels of CORT are not static, but follow a circadian rhythm that is closely aligned with the sleep-wake cycles. In both humans and rodents, plasma GCs rise as the sleep cycle (inactive phase) ends and peaks upon waking up. From this peak, GC levels fall during the active phase and eventually reach the circadian trough or nadir (the lowest point in the cycle) [17,18]. However, as nocturnal animals, the active phase for rodents is during the dark period and the inactive phase occurs during the light period. Thus, in laboratory animals, peak CORT levels are found just after the lights are turned off and nadir CORT levels are measured when the lights are turned on. In addition, within this circadian rhythm GCs are released in an ultradian (cycles repeated within the 24 hour period) pulsatile pattern which rises and falls according to the circadian rhythm [19]. Basal levels of CORT measured in rats can typically range from 0-200 ng/mL in adult male rats or 100-500 ng/mL in adult f emale rats [18]. In response to acute stressors, peak stress levels of CORT generally range from 200-600 ng/mL in adult male rats and 500-1000 ng/mL in adult female rats. Both basal and peak stress levels of CORT can vary depending on the sampling time within the circadian rhythm. Sex, Age and Strain Differences As noted above, sex differences in HPA axis activity and responses to acute stressors are well documented. Female rodents exhibit higher basal and stress induced levels of both ACTH and CORT [20,21]. Sex differences in CORT secretion are primarily mediated by estrogen, with higher levels of ACTH and CORT found during proestrus, when circulating levels of estrogen are high [20,18]. Much of the research on gonadal steroid regulation of the HPA axis suggests that estrogen has excitatory effects while androgens have inhibitory effects [22-26]. In addition, females have higher levels of corticosteroid binding globulin (CBG), which partially buffers the higher levels of CORT [27,24]. CBG binds circulating CORT and renders it biologically inactive [28,29]. However, CBG levels take several hours to increase after exposure to a stressor, resulting in higher levels of biologically active CORT in females in response to stressors [30]. Acute stress responses can also vary across the lifespan. After birth, from day 2 to 14, rats experience a stress hyporesponsive period (SHRP) wherein circulating basal CORT remain very low and neonatal pups fail to show an elevation in CORT in response to stress or ACTH administration[31-33]. Adolescence is the next developmental epoch, which includes three stages: pre-pubescence/early adolescence (21-34 days), mid-adolescence (34-46 days) and late adolescence (46-59 days) [34,35]. During early adolescence, rats exhibit an exaggerated HPA axis response to both acute and chronic stress compared to adults [36,37]. In addition, sex differences in HPA axis function mature over the adolescent period [38,39]. The acute stress response has also been investigated in aging animals, though a great deal of heterogeneity, particularly with respect to the aging model has been found [40]. However, the general consensus, based on earlier studies, is that aged animals exhibit elevated baseline (or basal) CORT and a prolonged stress-induced elevation in CORT release, possibly due to decreased GR-mediated negative feedback [41,42]. It should also be noted that aging is associated with increased variability in the acute stress response [40]. Sex differences in acute HPA axis responses are not frequently examined in aged rats. However, since estrogen decreases with age, and males demonstrate increased basal CORT, it would be expected that sex differences would become less robust [43,44] Robust strain differences in both basal and peak stress levels of CORT also exist. In general, the in bred Fischer 344 (F344) strain of rats secrete higher levels of both basal and stress induced CORT levels compared to both the inbred Lewis (LEW) strain and the outbred Sprague Dawley (SD) strain (Dhabar 1993). Interestingly, both F344 and SD rats show increased basal CORT levels at the end of the inactive period, while LEW rats did not show a robust circadian rhythm (Dhabar 1993). As mentioned above, strain differences can also interact with age differences to further complicate the picture of a normal HPA axis stress response across the lifespan. CHRONIC STRESS Exposure to chronic stress can result in long term elevations in GCs and has been shown to alter the structure and function of the brain regions involved in regulating the HPA axis as well as learning and memory and numerous other behaviors [7]. Two general responses in HPA axis function occur as a result of chronic stress, namely habituation and sensitization. Habituation typically occurs following repeated exposure to the same (homotypic) mild stressor, with the magnitude of the HPA axis response (i.e. CORT secretion) diminishing with each subsequent exposure to the stressor [45,46]. On the other hand, repeated exposure to different (heterotypic) and unpredictable stressors can diminish the habituation of the HPA axis response [47-49]. Interestingly, both chronic homotypic and heterotypic unpredictable stressors cause sensitization of the HPA axis response to a novel stressor, resulting in increased ACTH and CORT secretion [45,48]. The most frequently studied brain regions that are vulnerable to chronic stress are the HPC, amygdala (AMG) and PFC [50]. In both the HPC and PFC, chronic restraint stress results in dendritic atrophy and decreased GR expression, which facilitates decreased HPA axis feedback and impaired memory [51-54,7]. In addition, chronic stress can also lead to altered hippocampal excitability, neurochemistry and neurogenesis (refs from Conrad 2010 review if needed?). On the other hand, chronic stress causes dendritic hypertrophy and increased CRH expression in the AMG as well as dendritic hypertrophy in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), which facilitate HPA axis excitability and anxiety and habitual behavior, respectively [7,55-58]. Sex, Age and Strain Differences Sex differences in response to chronic stress exposure are less frequently examined. The above-mentioned effects are well documented in males. However, chronic stress does not appear to have the same effects in females. For example, females appear to be resilient against chronic stress induced dendritic atrophy in the HPC and spatial memory impairments [59-63]. In the PFC, females exhibit dendritic hypertrophy, whereas males demonstrate dendritic atrophy in response to repeated stress exposure [64]. In addition, chronic stress is associated with sex-specific PFC-mediated behavioral effects. Chronically stressed males show impairments in recall of fear extinction, possibly reflecting decreased behavioral flexibility [65-67]. However, chronically stressed females demonstrate impaired memory for the acquisition of fear conditioning, which is more dependent on the AMG [68-70]. Interestingly, males show dendritic hypertrophy and increased activation of the AMG and an associated increase i n the acquisition of fear conditioning following chronic stress [67]. Thus, in females, chronic stress causes more moderate morphological and behavioral outcomes that may be related to sex-specific changes in AMG function. Chronic stress also has differential effects across the lifespan. In general, earlier exposure to chronic stress (i.e. prenatal and neonatal) have protracted and irreversible effects compared to adult chronic stress. Exposing pregnant rat dams to chronic stress increases circulating CORT which crosses through the placenta and reaches the developing fetus to alter brain development and HPA axis activity [71]. The long-term effects of prenatal stress include increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion as well as learning impairments, increased anxiety- and depression-like behaviors and sensitivity to drugs of abuse [72,73]. Postnatal stress is typically induced by disrupting the maternal-pup interactions (i.e., maternal separation or daily handling of pups). The long-term effects of early postnatal stress include altered anxiety-like behavior and stress-induced HPA axis activity in adulthood though the direction of these effects are varied and highly dependent on the age of the p up, as well as the type and duration of the manipulations [72,74,75]. Chronic adolescent stress can result in enduring effects in adulthood, including decreased hippocampal volume, impaired spatial learning, and increased anxiety-like behavior adulthood [76-79]. However, there is less evidence for adolescent stress exposure to result in depressive behaviors in adulthood [80,81]. Studies of long lasting effects of adolescent stress exposure on HPA axis function are mixed, while most report no effect on basal or stress-induced CORT or ACTH secretion, some studies find increased basal and stress induced CORT secretion in adulthood [82,78,76,83,84]. Chronic stress exposure during adolescence can lead to long term behavioral and neuroendocrine effects, depending on the timing of exposure, the sex of the animal and the type of stressors used [82,84,85]. In aged animals, chronic stress has differential effects compared to young or middle-aged adult rats. For example, following 3 weeks of c hronic restraint stress in aged males and females, stress-induced sex differences were no longer evident on spatial and non-spatial memory tasks and chronic stress either facilitated or did not impair performance in aged male rats [86,87]. In addition, in aged animals sex-specific effects of chronic stress are reversed [86,87]. Furthermore, chronic stress in aged rats may potentiate stress-induced neurotoxicity, particularly in the HPC [72,88]. Strain differences are also noted in the effects of chronic stress. Interestingly, and in line with acute stress strain differences, the inbred F344 strain do not demonstrate habituation of the plasma CORT response to chronic stress with a repeated homotypic stressor, while SD and LEW rat strains do [46]. F344, but not SD and LEW, rats also exhibit adrenal gland hypertrophy after 3 sessions of restraint over 10 days [46]. F344 rats also exhibit a lack of HPA axis habituation following 14 days of restraint compared to SD rats [89]. Consistent with these findings, robust differences between SD and LEW rats were not found in either male or female rats in HPA axis response to an acute stressor after chronic exposure to unpredictable heteroptyic stressors [90]. TYPES OF STRESSORS Acute Stressors (Figure 3: Equipment/Stressors) In addition to being a threat against homeostasis, stressors can be described as any event or environment that is novel, unpredictable, poses a threat to well-being or ego, or creates a sense of loss of control (Lupien 2007). Acute stressors are stressors which occur on a single occasion with varying durations. Typically acute stressors last anywhere from 5 minutes to upwards of 6 hours, but in general for a period of time less than 24 hours. Acute stressors of longer durations are sometimes referred to as single prolonged stressors. Essentially the purpose of an acute stressor is for the experimental subject to mount a single stress response, or activation of the HPA axis. There are many different types of stressors and categorization of these stressors is attempted by many, though not all stress researchers agree. Stressors can vary in the type of perceived stress such as physical or psychological (or some combination of the two) as well as intensity and duration. Depending on the type of stressor used, differential effects on the HPA axis and SNS responses will occur. Physical stressors are stressors that are predominantly identified or perceived through the senses or involuntary (autonomic) mechanisms. Examples of physical stressors include extreme temperatures, loud noise, chemical exposure, extreme activity, metabolic or immune system disruptions, hemorrhage and pain. The most extreme physical stressors are necessarily limited to short durations due to discomfort. Many physical stressors can be administered in multiple ways or in combination with other stressors. To manipulate temperature, rodent subjects can be place in a standard cold room (~4-6 °C) or a hot room (~30-40 °C) or in cold (~18-20 °C) or hot water (~25-35 °C) as part of a forced swim stressor (forced exercise) [91-93]. Loud noises stressors are most effective at a range of ~90-110 dB [94]. Chemical stressors include exposure to ether vapors, hypoxic conditions, and injection of formalin or other noxious substances [93,95]. Stressors involving extreme activity include forc ed swim and on the opposite end of the spectrum, immobilization, wherein the subject is splayed out on a board with all its limbs and head secured to prevent movement. Metabolic disruptions can include fasting or food restriction, injections of insulin to induce hypoglycemia or lipopolysaccharide to induce an immune reaction. Hemorrhage or hypovolemia is induced by removing a percentage of blood volume with a moderate hemorrhage consisting of removal of ~20% estimated blood volume [96]. Finally, pain can be induced via numerous methods. Frequently used stressors include tail pinch with clothespins or hemostats. Another common stressor associated with pain is mild ( Psychological stressors are perceived threats against homeostasis or well-being. Important qualities of psychological stressors include loss of control, unpredictability and novelty. Identification of psychological stressors can also be experience or species dependent, in that the anticipation of the event itself can be a stressor, even in the absence of the actual event. Psychological stressors may also induce fear, anxiety or other behavioral changes. The effectiveness of psychological stressors is primarily under the control of limbic brain regions such as the HPC, AMG and PFC [7]. Several types of psychological stressors are used, including those that activate innate and species-specific behaviors and fear, inescapable/uncontrollable stressors, and social stressors. Activation of innate fear (based on a threat to safety/survival) in rodents can be accomplished with exposure to a predator (i.e. a cat or snake) or to a novel or unfamiliar environments particularly those with are op en and brightly lit (i.e. open field or elevated plus maze). Inescapable and uncontrollable stressors include inescapable foot or tail shock, forced swim and restraint. Rodent restraint is the most frequently used and well-documented stressor. It can also be combined with other physical stressors such as being placed in a rotating platform or in combination with tail pinch. Interestingly, even animal handling can be categorized as this type a stressor. Social stressors make up their own entire subcategory. Many researchers believe that social stressors are the most translationally relevant because the primary source of stress in humans comes from social interactions, expectations and even trauma. Rats are by nature social animals, but too much or too little can elicit a stress response. Two of the least effortful social stressors are isolation housing and high density housing (i.e. crowding). Interestingly males show a greater stress response to crowding while females show a greater stress response to single (i.e. isolation) housing [98]. A popular social stressor is social defeat, utilizing the resident intruder paradigm. This paradigm consists of using aggressive male rats (i.e. retired breeders or reared in isolation without handling) as the resident rat. The experimental rat (i.e. the one which will mount a stress response) is the intruder and is placed in the home cage of the resident rat. Typically the rats are allowed contac t with each other until the intruder demonstrates defeat behaviors (i.e. submissive supine posturing). In one modification of this paradigm, the intruder remains in the home cage of the resident rat but is separated, and therefore protected from physical harm, by a wire mesh enclosure [99,100]. A novel socially based stressor that is less labor intensive is to place a male rat in the dirty cage of another male rat. Thus the male rat is in an inescapable territory of another male rat, without physical contact [101]. Chronic Stress Paradigms Chronic stress is prolonged stress that typically occurs for at least 5 days, typically 1-3 weeks and sometimes up to 6 weeks or more. Many different types of chronic stress paradigms can be used, depending on the desired outcome measures. An additional variable to consider with chronic stress paradigms is the likelihood of habituation of the stress response over time, as mentioned above. Examples of chronic stress paradigms include chronic restraint, chronic mild stress, chronic unpredictable stress, chronic variable stress, chronic social stress, and chronic intermittent stress. Chronic restraint stress and chronic mild stress have historically been the most frequently used chronic stress paradigms. Interestingly, these paradigms have different phenotypic outcomes. Chronic restraint stress is frequently carried out with daily 6 hour restraint sessions for 3 weeks (Conrad XXXX). However, because chronic restraint stress is repeated exposure to a single homotypic stressor, habituation of the stress response after the first few days likely occurs as evidenced by blunted CORT and ACTH release in response to restraint following completion of the chronic restraint paradigm [102,103]. This paradigm is well characterized with regard to spatial learning and memory deficits as well as altered dendritic morphology, particularly dendritic retraction in the hippocampus [104]. Interestingly, spontaneous recovery of both altered dendritic morphology and spatial learning and memory deficits has been observed [105]. Chronic restraint stress also alters anxiety- and depressiv e-like behaviors, impairs response inhibition, facilitates fear learning and reduces motivation for food reward [106-108,53] Chronic mild stress (CMS) is typically used to induce an anhedonic (i.e. depressive-like) phenotype [109]. This paradigm typically involves exposure of the subjects to one mild stressor a day, typically for 6-8 weeks [109,110]. Stressors are administered on a set weekly schedule and include wet bedding, cage tilt, mild footshock, alterations in the light-dark cycle, food/water deprivation and cage changes [109,110]. Anhedonic effects of CMS, which can last up to 3 months, include decreased sucrose consumption, increased threshold for intracranial self-stimulation and decreased locomotor activity in the absence an anxiety-like phenotype [109]. Chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) is essentially an iteration of CMS, which lasts for a shorter period of time (~2 weeks) and presents mild to moderate stressors once a day in a more randomized order and time of day [111,112]. Depressive-like phenotypes are seen after CUS exposure in addition to anxiety-like phenotypes and cognitive deficits [1 12,91]. Chronic variable stress (CVS) is yet another more severe iteration of a repeated administration of heterotypic stressors. More recently, CVS paradigms have differentiated themselves from CMS paradig

International Relations: Important Theories

Realism makes four basic assumptions about international relations: * The state is the most important actor in international relations. This means that national governments are the most important player in the game of international politics–interest groups like Amnesty International or individual figures like the pope have no effect on how nations relate to one another. * The state is a unitary and rational actor. Unitary means that â€Å"the state speaks with one voice;† although members of a nation may have many different views on the best approach to a situation, only one approach will be enacted. Rational means that the state is capable of â€Å"identifying goals and preferences and determining their relative importance. † * International relations are essential conflictual because of anarchy. In this case, anarchy does not mean chaos–instead it refers to the absence of a higher authority to prevent aggression or arbitrate disputes. Just as men might run amok and attack one another without the government to punish them, nations will attack one another so long as they believe it in their best interest. Anarchy also compels states to arm themseves in order to feel secure. The stockpiling of arms and the building of a military, however, are provocative actions which prompt neighbouring states to feel insecure and build up their own weapons. * Security and strategic issues, known as high politics, dominate the international agenda. This means that states' paramount goal is to maximize their power in the international community, and that they are primarily concerned with military power. An example of a nation operating according to this maxim is North Korea in the early 90s–the downfall of the Soviet Union left them without Communist allies, so they began a nuclear weapons development program and threw out UN observers. They believed that if their government gained nuclear power, it would survive in the international community because other countries would fear them. Liberalism * Liberal international relations theories are based on the idea that humans are PERFECTABLE. In contrast to the greedy man of realism or even he survival man of realism, liberal theories tend to see man as rational as well as learning, striving, and improving over time. Liberals believe in PROGRESS. * Liberals believe that humans can learn to COOPERATE to improve their lives PEACE is seen as a preferred condition and therefore ways should be found to foster peace among states. This allows man to focus on the substantive things that make up the good life: food, art, culture, literature, farming, families. Everything but weapons and the fighting of war. Liberals believe that war stems from INADEQUATE INSTITUTIONS OR MISUNDERSTANDINGS, so we prevent war by crafting better institutions and eliminating the possibility of misunderstanding through education and discussion. * War stems from misery, POVERTY, INEQUALITY. * Liberal approaches often also see man as tied to fellow man by a COMMON HUMANITY. Therefore, the limits imposed by state boundaries are artificial. This leads to ideas such as the pursuit of human rights violators across state boundaries, seeking to engage in development assistance. League of Nations and UN Charters have strains of this type of liberal idealism: making peaceful settlement of disputes a new norm. Overcome past international conflict through institutionalized collective security mechanisms. * Some influential liberal ideas today: INTERDEPENDENCE and the rise of NON-STATE ACTORS. * Interdependence: Economic linkages, communication technologies finally making possible one world with one common humanity. All linked together, can’t go to war without causing hardship to all. This has been developed further in the 1990s to a school of thought which sees globalization as rendering war among major powers as impossible, would impoverish everyone, no one has an incentive to rock the globalization boat. * Rise of non-state actors: new non-state actors becoming more influential than the old states of realist international relations discourse: multinational companies many of which have greater annual turnover than developing countries’ GDPs, new cross-national issue groups: the Greens, Greenpeace, Amnesty International. These corporations and organizations are breaking down the state, establishing common interests across borders. Generally, foster peace. * Also, recently re-in vogue in the liberal camp is the DEMOCRATIC PEACE THESIS, the idea that democracies do not fight one another. * Liberal approaches have fostered much of the growth of INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (neo-liberalism with emphasis on institutions). International organizations are seen as ways of mediating conflict among states, establishing bases of cooperation, establishing rational-legalistic codes of conduct under which all will be better off. Some liberal internationalists see the evolution of international organizations, the development of international law, the growth of cross-national civil society groups as evidence that the state is being transgressed, or at least having its capacity for war-generating action reduced. * ANALOGY TO DOMESTIC STATE at international level. As in the domestic state where the government provides some order to relations among citizens, so international organizations (while not a world government) can provide some stability, security, and predictability to inter-state interactions. Can prevent states from being trapped in the SECURITY DILEMMA (need force to protect self, arms build up scares others into thinking you are going to attack, they build up their forces, they scare you, endless cycle of build-up ultimately leading to violence. By making self more secure through arms, make self less secure by compelling arms acquisition on neighbour/rival), can foster and build on areas where cooperation helpful to solve mutual interests, cooperation reinforcing. States can learn through international organizations/cooperation and change their preferences and behaviors. * IRAQ WAR: Liberals would certainly see Saddam Hussein as a problem: authoritarian, had shown proclivity to invade others. Marxism Marxism is one of the basic theories of international relations. According to Marxists, both realism and liberalism/idealism are simply self-serving ideologies introduced by the economic elites to defend and justify global inequality. Instead, Marxists argue, class is the fundamental unit of analysis of international relations, and the international system has been constructed by the upper classes and the wealthiest nations in order to protect and defend their interests. The various Marxist theories of international relations agree that the international state system was constructed by capitalists and therefore serves the interests of wealthy states and corporations, which seek to protect and expand their wealth. According to Marxist theory the â€Å"First World† and â€Å"Third World† are merely components of a larger world system which originated in 16th-century European colonialism. Instead, these states actually make up the â€Å"core† and â€Å"periphery† of the world system — respectively, the central wealthy states which own and chiefly benefit from the mechanisms of production, and the impoverished â€Å"developing† countries which supply most of the human labour and natural resources exploited by the rich. States which do not fit either class, but lie somewhere in the middle of the model, are referred to as â€Å"semi-peripheral. † The core-periphery thesis of world-systems theory is based upon another body of work, dependency theory, which argues that the basis of international politics is the transfer of natural resources from peripheral developing countries to core wealthy states, mostly the Western industrialized democracies. The poor countries of the world, like the poor classes of the world, are said to provide inexpensive human and natural capital, while the wealthy countries' foreign policies are devoted to creating and maintaining this system of inequality. International economic law (such as the World Trade Organization) and other such systems are seen as means by which this is done. To combat these systems of inequality, traditional Marxists and dependency theorists have argued that poor countries should adopt economic control policies that can break them out of the prison of international economic controls, such as import substitution (government assistance to domestic producers and barriers to wealthy international corporations attempting to flood the market with mass-produced imports) rather than the export-based models usually favoured by international economic organizations such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.

Bald Soprano Research Paper

A Cycle, A Cycle, A Cycle No one is bald, nor is there a singing soprano. So what is going on in Ionesco’s The Bald Soprano? Ionesco slowly strips his characters of all things that define them: religion, roots, the way in which they communicate and at times, even the functioning of their brains. Thus creating blank humans with no individual character who are useless and absurd. Now these people with no concrete definition to their being are to live in this gigantic world to the best of their ability. Their lives aren’t normal ones.Ionesco brings out the absurdity in his characters by excluding any solid foundation or motivation for living on earth. One very important form of guidance on life’s journey is Time. If there was no concept of time then all chaos would ensue and no one would know when anything is to be done. It is also a key factor to know how to live and work alongside time: to work with it, not against it. Will they be able to live in some sense of no rmality or will they be off on their own supernova to be absurd for evermore.Through the use of symbolism, irony and dialogue, Eugene Ionesco’s, The Bald Soprano conveys the idea that life is a never-ending cycle to express the absurdity of the human condition. The cycle of life is symbolized through the clock to reveal that the characters are stuck in an endless loop of time. The clock seems to take on a life all its own. It seems to decide when it wants to ring and how many times. The clock rings in a way that is quite shocking to the audience. This is because in the real world a clock does not normally ring 17 times. Nor is it normal for it to shoot out random times that don’t even go in order.In only one moment â€Å" The clock strikes seven times. Silence. The clock strikes three times. Silence† (The Bald Soprano 2). There seems to be no set regimen for time to follow. Time in the play is unorganized and almost absent in its common purpose. In no possible w ay could these characters even have the smallest possible chance of some normal routine when they have no constant to guide them through. Yes, Time is present but it is not the way in which we calculate it. There is no repeating pattern in this aspect and yet it still proceeds on which causes an endless loop of lunacy from which they cannot escape.The peculiar thing about it is the characters are not even finding it odd, as this is their notion of normalcy. In the play â€Å"the abnormal is treated as if it were thoroughly normal† (knowlson). And its funny because they don’t even realize that it never rings the same way or goes in a repeating pattern. The clock is random. It intrudes illogically. There is no logic in the Smith’s lives. The concept of reality is being distorted and no ounce of sense remains. The characters are flat, broad and general, which clearly emphasizes the absurdity of the human condition: trying to find a meaning and purpose to life.Even the primary characters last name, which is Smith, is so plain and typical. The plays cyclical structure accentuates repetition of the illogical happenings in the incompatible world in which the Smiths, Martins, the Maid and the Fire Chief live in. The play includes a â€Å"circular trajectory that ends where it began† (Kraus), thus causing the whole disordered cycle to start over and where the characters are involuntarily perplexed for all eternity. The characters live in a world of irony. They are lost in a continuum of memory loss without even realizing that they are losing their minds.Considering they don’t realize, they have no recollection of what has been going on around them and therefore not knowing what their purpose is in being where they are. This constant back and forth concept is for one, ironic because they have no memory of no longer having memory, but it is also mind-boggling. Mrs. Smith says, â€Å"We were expecting them. And we were hungry. Since the y didn't put in an appearance, we were going to start dinner without them. We've had nothing to eat all day† (The Bald Soprano 4). Mrs. Smith said she and Mr. Smith were going to eat but they didn’t.The characters can’t even remember what decisions they made and can’t remember to follow them. There is no stable element to guide them along a steady path. In the real world our memories our like our personal book of stories that hold the events that have happened in our lives. It defines us as a person of who we are in the past as well as who we are now. We as humans also interpret things we experience differently and remember things in different ways. Though we rely on our memory and mind quite heavily, who says it is a reliable resource to begin with?Ionesco is pointing towards the idea that our minds can’t possibly do everything for us as well as remember anything and everything we want it to. Unreliability of the memory is a concept that Ionesco wa nts us to take a look at, and that is a natural human failure that is part of our absurdity. As seen in The Bald Soprano the mind isn’t always a dependable tool that is conducive to everyday living. Our experiences make up our life’s journey and define our being. Ionesco’s characters do not know who they are and their purpose for living. At the end of the play the two couples switch places.The Smiths become the Martins and the Martins the Smiths. This results â€Å"in a da capo conclusion [with] the words that had been spoken by the Smiths at the beginning of the play [are now being spoken by the Martins]† (Knowlson). It’s ironic how they repeat the story but as different people but with the same name, because what is the purpose of having a name and being somebody if anyone can be anyone? Ionesco brings out inconsistency, which is a major factor in the play and possibly a factor in our lives. Without consistency the lives in which we lead would la ck substance and meaning.Ionesco suggests the idea of a normal daily schedule in which a human being can follow and keep order is a necessity. The human condition may seem absurd at times because what really is the point in doing the same thing everyday for as long as we live? The answer is, the consistency in the constant never ending cycle is life, which is why we are living. There may be nonsense in the play but somehow it leads to sense. The ironic statements due to memory loss show the absurdity in which humans possess. Mr. Smith is one who can be categorized as so.Without his memory he puts out ironic phrases without even putting thought to it and this leads to a lack of sentence structure. The play is made up of dialogue that sometimes seems to lack a sense of logic. The language in the play decreases in substance as the play progresses. The â€Å"language flows independently from meaning† (Feal). The words are not communicating what they seem to say but rather the und erlying meaning, which is found in the way the language is used or how really how it is informally used. Language and meaning march to the beat of a different drum.The words are separate entities that work independently yet together to convey Ionesco’s view on language, which is that it is made out to be more than what it is really worth. Language is used as a communicator and the order, or lack of it, in which words are placed, conveys a message of pure insanity. The characters â€Å"actions contradict words, and [their] words contradict [their] actions. Even the title is misleading, since there is no bald soprano in the play† (Esteban). Ionesco writes where there is meaning in no meaning, so he probably intended on writing with meaning all along.The characters talk just to talk and they really have nothing of importance to say. As the play drags on while the structure becomes less and less until dialogue has lost all value and â€Å"made into mere exchange† (K nowlson). The words on the page are out of content and have become particles of matter that are floating in the air. The more they talk, the less they are actually communicating and this is causing the precious tool of language to no longer articulate. Like when Mr. Smith states â€Å"The pope elopes! The pope's got no horoscope.The horoscope's bespoke† (The Bald Soprano 17). The play starts out with sentences that make no sense at all then it breaks down to just words without meaning until finally all that is left is a bunch of frenzied sounds. The characters have gotten quite angry that they lost all ability to communicate that their chatter swells up into mushy sound. They live in a never-ending cycle of insignificant discourse. This is Ionesco pointing out the absurdity of how humans converse. The Bald Soprano is a piece under the genre of the Absurd. It is very easy to see why.In this genre a common aspect is that the characters are rapt in an endlessly repeating cycle. This cycle usually leads nowhere as it is a cycle with no beginning and no end. Ionesco uses this cycle to emulate life. Life is filled with a bunch of meaningless things that fill our everyday lives. Banana. When something is of meaning we know because we have experienced the everyday typical life of a human. Broadway. Dreams. Goals. That’s what we are. Well that’s what we should be. Life is pretty much repeating. Repeating. Repeating. Repeating. We have a set way of doing things and we follow it.We repeat these actions to fill up our lives with substance so that there is at least something there to start with and so that we have the ability to move forward and continue. Think of it as muscles. Muscles give our body substance to stand up and it is what allows us to move as well as other necessary functions. In our world we use a clock to stay in touch with time. Time. Timing. Bad timing. Time is a fundamental concept that guides humans through life, gives structure, a s well as ages and heals. We also say funny things sometimes and we do use a language to communicate. It is how we use all these things that matters.